Why are Malaysian youth migrating? Exploring the factors behind migration

Uma Thevi Munikrishnan, Mohd Khairi Ismail, Shiu Thou Chow, Mcxin Tee, Aeshah Mohd Ali, Leo Ling Ming Liang

Abstract


Malaysia has been experiencing serious brain drain for several years, with many highly skilled and educated youth choosing to migrate abroad looking for better opportunities. The study proposes a quantitative approach to investigate the factors driving Malaysian youth to emigrate. A total of 257 responses were collected for data analysis using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-Sem). The findings revealed that the labour market, quality of life and career prospects positively significant at 0.05% influence cultural adaptation, while cultural adaptation positively influences the desire of Malaysian youth to work abroad. Cultural adaptation mediates the relationship between the labour market, quality of life, career prospects and the intention to work abroad. Moreover, cultural adaptation has the greatest impact on the intention to work abroad; career prospects have a medium impact on cultural adaptation; and the labour market and quality of life have a minor impact. The study sheds light on the causes of accelerated brain drain among Malaysian youth and makes various recommendations as well as limitations for the study and future research prospects.

 

Keywords: Brain drain, career prospects, cultural adoption, decent work, emigration, quality of life


Keywords


Brain drain, career prospects, cultural adoption, decent work, emigration, quality of life

Full Text:

PDF

References


Afiq Hanif (2023, March 7). Malaysia’s brain drains significantly higher than global average. The Malaysian Reserve https://themalaysianreserve.com/2023/03/07/malaysias-brain-drain-significantly-higher-than-global-average-says-minister-sivakumar/

Ajayi, O., Uthman, O. A., & Omole, O. (2023). Why move abroad? Factors influencing migration intentions of final year students of health-related disciplines in Nigeria. BMC Medical Education, 23(1), 46–58.

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211.

Akokuwebe, M. E., Likoko, S., Osuafor, G. N., & Idemudia, E. S. (2023). Determinants of life satisfaction among migrants in South Africa: An analysis of the GCRO’s quality of life survey (2009–2021). BMC Public Health, 23, 16868.

Aminah, S., Ashraf, M., Muneerah, N., & Wider, W. (2022). Determinants of energy efficient appliances among Malaysian households: Roles of theory of planned behavior, social interaction and appliance quality. Asian Economic and Financial Review, 12(3), 212-226.

Arora, N., & Aggarwal, A. (2018). The role of perceived benefits in formation of online shopping attitude among women shoppers in India. South Asian Journal of Business Studies, 7(1), 91-110.

Baruch, Y., Budhwar, P. S., & Khatri, N. (2007). Brain drain: Inclination to stay abroad after studies. Journal of world business, 42(1), 99-112.

Bayram Özdemir, S., Özdemir, M., & Boersma, K. (2021). How does adolescents’ openness to diversity change over time? The role of majority-minority friendship, friends’ views, and classroom social context. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(1), 75-88.

Bayram, B., & Eryılmaz, S. (2025). Acculturation strategies of international higher education students in Türkiye: The role of social support, cultural capital, self-esteem, general trust, and general self-efficacy. Current Psychology, 44, 10679–10695.

Belchior-Rocha, H., Casquilho-Martins, I., & Simões, E. (2022). Transversal competencies for employability: from higher education to the labour market. Education Sciences, 12(4), 255.

Bhandari, P. (2020, November 24). What is quantitative research? Definitions, uses & methods. Scribbr https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research

Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991). Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of management review, 16(2), 291-317.

Bozionelos, N., Bozionelos, G., Kostopoulos, K., Shyong, C., Baruch, Y., & Zhou, W. (2015). International graduate students' perceptions and interest in international careers. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(11), 1428–1451.

Brislin, R., Worthley, R., & Macnab, B. (2006). Cultural intelligence: Understanding behaviors that serve people’s goals. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 40-55.

Business Today. (2024, August 17). Low pay, underinvestment in STEM, reason for brain drain. Business Today https://www.businesstoday.com.my/2024/08/17/low-pay-underinvestment-in-stem-reason-for-brain-drain/ BusinessToday

Chen, A. S. Y., Lin, Y. C., & Sawangpattanakul, A. (2011). The relationship between cultural intelligence and performance with the mediating effect of culture shock: A case from Philippine laborers in Taiwan. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(2), 246-258.

Chen, M. (2019). The impact of expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment on work stress and job involvement in the high-tech industry. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 478132.

Chen, Y., & Wu, J. (2022). Factors affecting overseas internship, employment, and further education under the belt and road initiative: A theory of planned behavior analysis. International Journal of Business Studies, 4(2), 45–60.

Chin, W. W. (1998). The Partial Least Squares Approach for Structural Equation Modeling. In G. A. Marcoulides (Eds.), Modern Methods for Business Research (pp. 295 236). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cho, H., Kang, K., & Park, K. (2023). Health-related quality of life of migrant workers: A systematic literature review. BMC Public Health, 23, 15981.

Comparative Migration Studies. (2024). Assessing the impact of migration on the happiness of household women left behind: Evidence from Punjab, Pakistan. Comparative Migration Studies, 12(48).

Comparative Migration Studies. (2024). Life experiences and cultural adaptation among migrant workers in Malaysia. Comparative Migration Studies, 12(1), 1.

Department of Statistics Malaysia (2024, May 14). Demographic Statistics, First Quarter 2024 https://www.dosm.gov.my/portal-main/release-content/demographic-statistics-first-quarter-2024

Diener, E. D., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective wellbeing: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276-302.

Feng, H. (2015). Understanding cultural variations in giving advice among Americans and Chinese. Communication Research, 42(8), 1143-1167.

Fischer, R., & Karl, J. A. (2022). Predicting behavioral intentions to prevent or mitigate COVID-19: A cross-cultural meta-analysis of attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control effects. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 264–276.

Fischer, R., Ferreira, M. C., Assmar, E., Redford, P., Harb, C., Glazer, S., Cheng, B.-S., Jiang, D.-Y., Wong, C. C., Kumar, N., Kärtner, J., Hofer, J., & Achoui, M. (2009). Individualism-collectivism as descriptive norms: Development of a subjective norm approach to culture measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(2), 187–213.

Froese, F. J. (2012). Motivation and adjustment of self-initiated expatriates: The case of expatriate academics in South Korea. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(6), 1095-1112.

Hair Jr., J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed). Sage Publications.

Hameed, M. A., Counsell, S., & Swift, S. (2012). A meta-analysis of relationships between organisational characteristics and IT innovation adoption in organisations. Information and Management, 49(5), 218-232.

Han, Q. (2022). New in town, already settled in: Assessing the behavioural and experiential indicators that lead to acculturative advantages. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(3), 219–236.

Holtbrügge, D., & Engelhard, F. (2016). Study abroad programs: Individual motivations, cultural intelligence, and the mediating role of cultural boundary spanning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(3), 435-455.

Kan, M. P., & Fabrigar, L. R. (2017). Theory of planned behavior. Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences, 1-8.

Keeves, G. D., & Westphal, J. D. (2021). From help to harm: Increases in status, perceived under-reciprocation, and the consequences for access to strategic help and social undermining among female, racial minority, and white male top managers. Organization Science, 32(4), 1120-1148.

Khoo, Y. Y., Farid, N. D. N., Choo, W. Y., & Omar, A. (2022). Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of young-onset hypertension in Malaysia, 2006–2015. Journal of human hypertension, 36(1), 106-116.

Kwok, Y. Y., Chui, W. H., & Wong, L. P. (2013). need satisfaction mechanism linking volunteer motivation and life satisfaction: A mediation study of volunteers subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 114(3), 1315–1329.

Le, H., Jiang, Z., & Greenhaus, J. (2022). Building cultural intelligence through supervisor support: Social exchange and subjective career success as mediators and organisational support as a moderator. International Migration, 61(3), 270-286.

Lim, Y. S., Madelene, T. C. I., Siew, S. Y., Tan, Y. C., & Wong, V. (2016). Factors Influencing Tertiary Education Students Intention to Work Abroad [Bachelor thesis, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman].

Malay Mail. (2023, February 24). HR minister calls for salary bump in high-tech industry to stave off brain drain. Malay Mail https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2023/02/24/hr-minister-calls-for-salary-bump-in-high-tech-industry-to-stave-off-brain-drain/56627

Malay Mail. (2024, February 21). Study warns of ‘brain drain’, finds three in four Malaysians living, working in Singapore skilled or semi-skilled. Malay Mail https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/02/21/study-warns-of-brain-drain-finds-three-in-four-malaysians-living-working-in-singapore-skilled-or-semi-skilled/119128

Marquart-Pyatt, S. T. (2012). Contextual influences on environmental concerns cross-nationally: A multilevel investigation. Social science research, 41(5), 1085-1099.

Mediran, M. G. S., Revilla, J. A. D., Caroche, M. L. P., Mercado, A. M. S., & Villanueva, M. J. S. (2021). investigating the intention to work overseas among Filipino engineering students by testing a structural equation model based on an extended theory of planned behavior. Journal of Economics, Management & Agricultural Development, 7(2), 17-43.

Morren, M., & Grinstein, A. (2021). The cross-cultural challenges of integrating personal norms into the theory of planned behavior: A Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling (MASEM) approach. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 75, 1-16.

Ogiemwonyi, O., Harun, A., Hossain, M. I., & Karim, A. M. (2023). The influence of green behaviour using Theory of Planned Behaviour approach: Evidence from Malaysia. Vision: The Journal of Business Perspective, 27(1), 110–121.

Rahman, M. A., Lee, C., & Hashim, N. (2023). Life experiences and cultural adaptation among migrant workers in Malaysia. Comparative Migration Studies, 11(3), 1–18.

Rahman, M. A., Lee, C., & Hashim, N. (2024). Life experiences and cultural adaptation among migrant workers in Malaysia. Comparative Migration Studies, 12(1).

Rais, H., & Peredaryenko, M. (2022, May 24). Malaysian brain drain – don’t go chasing waterfalls https://www.emirresearch.com/malaysian-brain-drain-dont-go-chasing-waterfalls/.

Ramalu, S. S., Chuaa, F., Talib, A. N. A., & Abdel-Rahman, G. M. A. (2023). Re-expatriation intention from home country push factors perspective. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 7(1), 27-47.

Ramayah, T., Cheah, J., Chuah, F., Ting, H., & Memon, M. A. (2018). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) using smartPLS 3.0. An Updated Guide and Practical Guide to Statistical Analysis (2nd ed.). Pearson.

Sandaran, S. C. (2024). Sociocultural adaptation challenges of international students at a higher learning institution in Malaysia. LSP International Journal, 4(2), 45–58.

Santos, R., Medina, P., & Cruz, J. (2024). Exploring the desire of Filipino engineering professionals to work abroad using the ECT–TPB model. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 148–162.

Schlaegel, C., Richter, N. F., & Taras, V. (2021). Cultural intelligence and work-related outcomes: A meta-analytic examination of joint effects and incremental predictive validity. Journal of World Business, 56(4).

SCMP. (2025, April 9). Malaysia’s brain drain deepens as 1 in 6 state-funded scholars opts to work abroad. South China Morning Post https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/people/article/3305861/malaysias-brain-drain-deepens-1-6-state-funded-scholars-opts-work-abroad

Shah, J. I. (2011). Brain drain: Why people leave their motherland? (Implications for the developed and developing economies). Journal of Managerial Sciences, 5(1), 63-74.

Sinar Daily. (2023, June 25). Over half of Malaysian grads want to work abroad, citing better opportunities. https://www.sinardaily.my/article/199113/malaysia/national/over-half-of-malaysian-grads-want-to-work-abroad-citing-better-opportunities

Sinar Daily. (2023, November 16). Brain drain persists as half of 37,380 graduates seek better career prospects abroad. Sinar Daily https://www.sinardaily.my/article/212783/focus/national/brain-drain-persists-as-half-of-37380-graduates-seek-better-career-prospects-abroad

Sun, G., Tee, M., Al Mamun, A., & Salamah, A. A. (2022). Strategic orientation, service innovation capability and financial performance among Chinese service-oriented SMEs. International Conference on Business and Technology, 486, 725-736.

Tan, C. C., Bhandari, P., Sigdel, B., Sansuk, T., & Poosala, A. (2022). Mental Model-Led Theory of Planned Behavior Application to Studying Organizational Citizenship Behaviors of Teachers and Administrative Staffs at Higher Learning Institutions. The Journal of Pacific Institute of Management Science (Humanities and Social Science), 8(2), 236-250.

The Edge Malaysia. (2024). The State of the Nation: Reforms key to uphill task of turning ‘brain drain’ into ‘brain gain’. The Edge Markets. https://theedgemalaysia.com/node/714106 The Edge Malaysia

The Malaysian Reserve. (2023, May 30). Addressing unemployed PhD graduates in Malaysia. The Malaysian Reserve https://themalaysianreserve.com/2023/05/30/addressing-unemployed-phd-graduates-in-malaysia/

The Sun Daily. (2022, March 15). Over 1.86 million Malaysians working abroad: Report https://www.thesundaily.my/local/over-186-million-malaysians-working-abroad-report-YH8929801

Thomas, D. C., & Inkson, K. (2009). Cultural intelligence: living and working globally (2nd ed.). Berrett-Koehler.

Vimalkumar, S., Sharma, S. K., Singh, J. B., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2022). Extension of the theory of planned behavior in the context of social commerce: A meta-analytic SEM. Information Systems Frontiers, 24(3), 853–872.

Wang, K., Fang, L., & Chen, X. (2022). Home and away: How career adaptability and cultural intelligence facilitate international migrant workers’ adjustment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 170, 104168.

Wang, Q., & Luo, H. (2024). Academics’ intention to sustain new teaching practices after the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Higher Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01326-7

Weerasinghe, C. A. K., & Kumar, S. (2014). Intention to pursue overseas jobs among university students and graduates: A case study from University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research, 26(1), 94-108.

Wen, L., Yang, H. C., Bu, D., Diers, L., & Wang, H. (2018). Public accounting vs private accounting, career choice of accounting students in China. Journal of Accounting in Emerging Economies, 8(1), 124-140.

World Bank. (2011, April). Malaysia economic monitor: brain drain (English) https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/282391468050059744/malaysia-economic-monitor-brain-drain.

Wu, Y., Li, H., & Wang, J. (2022). The impacts of academic adaptation on psychological and sociocultural adaptation among international students in China: The moderating role of friendship. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 89, 79–89.

Yurtkoru, S. E., Dauda, E., & Sekarawisut, W. (2017). The theory of planned behavior augmented with cognitive cultural intelligence and work-related perceptions in predicting intention to work abroad. Journal of Academy Management Science, 5(3), 176-181.

Zhang, L., Sun, Y., & Guo, H. (2024). A longitudinal examination of perceived cultural distance, psychological, and sociocultural adaptation among international postgraduate students in Shanghai. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 95, 101784.

Zhang, W., Mas’od, A., & Sulaiman, Z. (2022). Collectivism as a moderator of Chinese consumers’ intention to adopt electric vehicles: An extended TPB approach. Sustainability, 14(19), 12398.


Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.