Perubahan Dasar Pertahanan Luar Negeri: 1MDB dan Pemesatan Dasar Pertahanan Malaysia terhadap China
Abstract
Interaksi antara kleptokrasi, tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam, dan penggubalan dasar pertahanan masih belum diterokai secara komprehensif dalam kajian literatur sedia ada. Maka, apabila kerajaan Malaysia di era Najib Razak memesatkan hubungan ketenteraan dengan China susulan skandal 1MDB, di sebalik tindak-tanduk China menuntut perairan Malaysia dan melakukan siri pencerobohan tentera laut ke dalam wilayah negara, telah memberikan peluang untuk menganalisis fenomena sedemikian. Objektif kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji taktik kleptokrat daripada perspektif tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam dalam mengalihkan strategi ketenteraan pro-Barat Malaysia dengan tekanan yang dikenakan oleh Amerika Syarikat dan tarikan rasuah strategik yang dilakukan oleh China terhadap kepentingan kleptokratik Najib Razak. Melalui metodologi kualitatif menerusi temu bual bersama aktor-aktor penting dan data sekunder, dapatan kajian ini mendapati manipulasi tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam ialah pembolehubah penting yang memberi kesan kepada dasar pertahanan kleptokrat. Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa usaha Najib menukar bentuk hubungan tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam Malaysia daripada sistem pemegang amanah kepada sistem tawar-menawar kleptokratik telah membawa kepada pemesatan dasar pertahanan Malaysia terhadap China. Implikasi kajian ini cukup signifikan dalam memahami perubahan dasar pertahanan luar negeri dari perspektif tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam.
Kata kunci: 1MDB; kleptokrasi; Najib Razak; pembuatan dasar pertahanan luar negeri; tawar-menawar perkhidmatan awam
Abstract: The interaction between kleptocracy, public service bargains, and defence policymaking has not yet been sufficiently explored in the existing literature. Therefore, when the Malaysian government during Najib Razak’s era intensified its defence policy towards China - despite Chinese claims to Malaysian waters and naval intrusions - Malaysia's move towards China in the aftermath of the 1MDB scandal presents an opportunity to analyse such a phenomenon. The objective of this research is to investigate the kleptocrat's tactics to shift Malaysia's pro-Western military strategy from public service bargains perspective by examining the pressures imposed by the US and the strategic corruption pull exerted by China on Prime Minister Najib Razak's kleptocratic interests. By adopting qualitative methodology through extensive interviews and secondary data, this study finds that the manipulation of public service bargains is a significant variable impacting the kleptocrat's defence policies. It concludes that Najib's efforts converted the traditional trustee-style of bargaining in Malaysia's defence decision-making process into a kleptocratic kind, allowing for a stronger relationship with China. This research implication is highly significant in understanding the defence policy change from public service bargains perspective.
Keywords: 1MDB; kleptocracy; Najib Razak; defence policymaking; public service bargains
References
Abadi, A. M. (2023). Perubahan dasar ekonomi luar negeri Malaysia: 1MDB, pelupusan aset strategik dan pinjaman China 2015-2016. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 8(10), e002547– e002547. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v8i10.2547.
Abadi, A. M. (2022). Kleptocracy and foreign loan decision-making process: Insights from Malaysia's deals and renegotiations with China. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 41(1), 135-158. https://doi.org/10.1177/18681034211058470.
Abadi, A. M. (2021). Kleptocracy, strategic corruption, and defence policymaking: The impact of Najib Razak’s 1MDB scandal on Malaysia’s Defence relationship with China (2015–2017). Contemporary Politics, 27(5), 508-527. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2021.1917163.
Abadi, A. M. (2019). Connecting Malaysia and China: From the past to the future. In H. D. Evers, A. R. Embong, & R. Ramli (Eds.), Connecting oceans volume 1: Malaysia as a maritime nation (pp. 87 -106). Penerbit UKM.
Abadi, A. M. (2017). Perbandingan Dasar Luar Malaysia dan Indonesia terhadap Amerika Syarikat dan China dari perspektif realisme neo-klasik. Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 13(1), 119–132.
Abas, M. (2016, March 12). The Future RMN Armada. Malaysian Defence. https://www.malaysiandefence.com/future-rmn-armada/
Acharya, A. (2014). Power shift or paradigm shift? China’s rise and Asia’s emerging security order. International Studies Quarterly, 58(1), 158–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/isqu.12084
Ahmad, A. S., Mansor, N., & Ahmad, A. K. (2003). The Malaysian Bureaucracy: Four decades of development. Prentice Hall.
Allard, T., & Sipalan, J. (2016). Malaysia to Buy Navy Vessels from China in Blow to U.S. Reuters, 28 October.
Allison, G. T. (2017). Destined for War: Can America and China escape thucydides’s trap? Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Allison, G. T., & Zelikow, P. (1971). Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. Little, Brown.
Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. (2020, May 18). Update: Chinese survey ship escalates three-way standoff. https://amti.csis.org/chinese-survey-ship-escalates-three-way-standoff/
Asia Times. (2020, March 9). Three-way fray spells toil and trouble in South China Sea. https://asiatimes.com/2020/03/three-way-fray-spells-toil-and-trouble-in-south-china-sea/
Bach, T., & Wegrich, K. (2020). Politicians and bureaucrats in executive government. In R. Andeweg, R. Elgie, L. Helms, J. Kaarbo, & F. Müller-Rommel (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Executives (pp. 525–546). Oxford University Press.
Abdul Razak Baginda. (2009). Malaysia’s Defence & Security since 1957. Malaysian Strategic Research Centre.
Bing, N. C. (2015). Comprehensive strategic partners but prosaic military ties: The development of Malaysia–China Defence relations 1991–2015’. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 37(2), 269–304. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs37-2e
Case, W. (2017). Stress testing leadership in Malaysia: The 1MDB Scandal and Najib Tun Razak. The Pacific Review, 30(5), 633–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1282538
Chellaney, B. (2017). China’s debt-trap diplomacy. Project Syndicate. https://www.project syndicate.org/commentary/china-one-belt-one-road-loans-debt-by-brahma-chellaney-201701?barrier=accesspaylog
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS). (2019). Outer limits of The Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles from The Baselines: Submissions to the commission: Partial submission by Malaysia in The South China Sea, 12 December, https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_mys_12_12_2019. html
Daud, S. (2004). Globalisasi dan Negara Pembangunan [Globalization and developmentalist state]. Akademika, 64(1).
Daud, S. (2020). Dasar pembangunan dan populisme di Malaysia [Development policy and populism in Malaysia]. Penerbit UKM.
Defence White Paper. (2019). Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Ministry of Defence.
Doig, W. (2019, January 15). The belt and road initiative is a corruption bonanza. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/15/the-belt-and-road-initiative-is-a-corruption-bonanza/
Ejaz, A. S. (2019). The Defence White Paper 2019 offers chances for reforming military and security thinking in Malaysia. Midas. http://midas.mod.gov.my/gallery/publication/midas-commentaries/78 the-defence-white-paper-2019-offers-chances-for-reforming-military-and-security-thinkingin malaysia
Elman, M. F. (1995). The foreign policies of small states: Challenging neorealism in its own backyard. British Journal of Political Science, 25, 171–217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007146
Esman, M. J. (1972). Administration and development in Malaysia: Institution building and reform in a plural society. Cornell University Press.
Former Adviser to Najib Razak. (2015). Personal communication with Author. Kuala Lumpur, November 12.
Former Special Officer to the National Security Minister. (2020). Interviewed by author. Skype, July 19.
Gabriel, C. (2018). The rise of Kleptocracy: Malaysia’s missing billions. Journal of Democracy, 29(1), 69- 75. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2018.0005
Hart, P. T., Stern, E., & Sundelius, B. (Eds.). (1997). Beyond groupthink: Political group dynamics and foreign policy-making. University of Michigan Press.
Hayton, B. (2014). The South China Sea: The struggle for power in Asia. Yale University Press.
Hood, C., & Lodge, M. (2006). The politics of public service bargains: Reward, competency, loyalty-and blame. Oxford University Press.
Howarth, P. (2006). China’s rising sea power: The PLA Navy’s Submarine challenge. Routledge.
Hoyt, P. D., & Garrison, J. A. (1997). Political manipulation within the small group: Foreign Policy Advisers in The Carter Administration. In P. D. Hart, E. Stern, & B. Sundelius (Eds.), Beyond groupthink: Political Group Dynamics and Foreign Policy-Making (pp. 249). University of Michigan Press.
Hussain, A. A. (2008). Pembentukan Polisi Awam [The formulation of Public policy]. Utusan Publications.
Ismail, M. T., & Abadi, A. M. (2019). United States democracy assistance in Malaysia: The nature and impact of concurrent strategy. The Pacific Review, 32(4), 572-602. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2018.1492959.
Jomo, K. S. (2017, August 11). ECRL folly bound to fail and burden The Nation. https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/391563
Jones, D. S. (2020). 1MDB Corruption Scandal in Malaysia: A study of failings in control and accountability. Public Administration and Policy, 23(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/PAP-11 2019-0032
Jones, L. (2010). ASEAN’s Unchanged melody? The theory and practice of ‘non-interference’ in Southeast Asia. The Pacific Review, 23(4), 479–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2010.495996
Jones, L. (2016). Explaining The failure of The ASEAN Economic Community: The primacy of domestic political economy. The Pacific Review, 29(5), 647–670. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2015.1022593
Jones, L. (2019). Theorizing foreign and security policy in an era of state transformation: A new framework and case study of China. Journal of Global Security Studies, 4(4), 579–597. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogy030
Keethaponcalan, S. I. (2015). Dragon in the tear drop: Regional dynamics of growing Chinese influence in Sri Lanka. In P. N. Wong, & Y. J. Cheng (Eds.), Global China: Internal and external reaches (pp.317–337). World Scientific Publishing Co.
Keohane, R. (1969). Lilliputians’ dilemmas: Small states in internatinal politics. International Organization, 23(2), 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081830003160X
Kondapalli, S. (2018). The Maritime silk road and China–Maldives Relations. In J. Blanchard (Ed.), China’s Maritime silk road initiative and South Asia (pp. 173–201). Palgrave.
Krasner, S. (1995/96). Compromising Westphalia. International Security, 20(3), 115–151. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539141
Kuik, C. C. (2013). ‘Malaysia’s US policy under Najib: Structural and domestic sources of a small state’s strategy’. Asian Security, 9(3), 143–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2013.832211
Lam, C. W. (2015). Are we protected? Malaysian defence uncovered. Research for Social Advancement.
Lancaster, C. (2007). Foreign aid: Diplomacy, development, domestic politics. University of Chicago Press.
Lee, C. (2016). “Deepening of Malaysia’s economic ties to China: What are the implications?” ISEAS Yusof-Ishak Institute. https://thinkasia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/9157/ISEAS_ Perspective_2016_69.pdf?sequence=1
Liu, H., & Lim, G. (2019). The political economy of a rising China in Southeast Asia: Malaysia’s response to the belt and road initiative. Journal of Contemporary China, 28(116), 216–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2018.1511393
Lockman, S. (2013, April 24). Why Malaysia isn’t afraid of China – For now. The Strategist, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/why-malaysia-isnt-afraid-of-chinafor now/
Lubold, G. (2015, August 20). Pentagon says China has stepped up land reclamation in South China Sea. Wall Street Journal. http://www.wsj.com/articles/pentagon-says-china-hasstepped-upland reclamation-in-south-china-sea-1440120837
Mahadzir, D. (2014). Malaysia’s Maritime claims in The South China Sea: Security and military dimensions. In P. Chachavalpongpun (Ed.), Entering unchartered waters? ASEAN and the South China Sea (pp.208–222). ISEAS.
Mansor, N., & Noriza, R. (2015). Public administration in Malaysia. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Malaysia (pp. 103–115). Routledge.
Mearsheimer, J. J. (2014). The tragedy of great power politics. W.W. Norton.
Milner, A. (2017). Malaysia in 2016. Asian Survey, 57(1), 173–179 https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2017.57.1.173
Mohamad, M. (2011). Doktor umum [A doctor in the house: The memoirs of Tun Dr. Mahathir mohamad]. MPH Publishing.
Mohamad, M. (2017, August 24). Interviewed by author during “The impact of China’s investments in Malaysia” forum. Kuala Lumpur.
Mokhtar, M. S. (2019). Di sebalik krisis kewangan Negeri-Negeri Melayu Bersekutu, 1920-1924 [The other side of the federated Malay states financial crisis, 1920–1924]. Kajian Malaysia: Journal of Malaysian Studies, 37(2), 95-119. https://doi.org/10.21315/km2019.37.2.5.
Mourdoukoutas, P. (2019a, April 13). Chinese investments: Malaysia dares something Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Philippines didn’t. https://www.forbes.com/sites/panosmourdoukoutas/2019/04/13/chineseinvestments-Malaysiadares- something-sri-lanka-pakistan-and-philippines-didnt/
Mourdoukoutas, P. (2019b, July 11). The problem with China’s investments – from Malaysia to Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Uganda. https://www.forbes.com/sites/panosmourdoukoutas/2019/07/11/theproblemwith-chinasinvestments- from-malaysia-to-sri-lanka-pakistan-and-uganda/#46ec94f2e357
Nadzri, M. M. N. (2018). The 14th general election, the Fall of Barisan Nasional, and political development in Malaysia, 1957-2018. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 37(3), 139-171. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341803700307.
National Security Council. (2016). National Security Council act. Parlimen Malaysia.
Nazmi, H., & Helmi, M. (2016). The reporting on the 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) crisis and implication on efficacy of economic and financial news reporting in Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 3, 10. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.310.2242
Noor, E., & Qistina, T. N. (2017). Great power rivalries, domestic politics and Malaysian foreign policy. Asian Security, 13(3), 200–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2017.1354568
Page, J., & Maxwell, J. (2017, January 6). Chinese Submarine’s Malaysian port call signals regional power shift. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinese-submarines-malaysian portcall-signals-regional-power-shift-1483700183
Peters, B. G. (1988). Comparing public Bureaucracies: problems of theory and method. University of Alabama Press.
Raine, S., & Le Miere, C. (2013). Regional disorder: The South China Sea Disputes. The International Institute for Strategic Studies.
Renshon, J., & Renshon, S. A. (2008). The theory and practice of foreign policy decision making. Political Psychology, 29(4), 509–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00647.x
Rose-Ackerman, S. (1999). Corruption and government: Causes, consequences and reform. Cambridge University Press.
Rothstein, R. L. (1968). Alliances and small powers. Columbia University Press.
Saravanamuttu, J. (2010). Malaysia’s foreign policy: The first fifty years: Alignment, neutralism, islamism. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Sarawak Report. (2015, July 2). Sensational findings! – Prime Minister Najib Razak’s personal accounts linked to 1MDB money trail. http://www.sarawakreport.org/2015/contemporarypolitics1907/sensational-findingsprime-minister najib-razaks-personal-accounts-linked-to-1mdb-money trail-malaysia-exclusive/
Sarji, A. (1996). Civil service reforms: Towards Malaysia’s vision 2020. Pelanduk Publications.
Senior Officer at the Malaysian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2019, July 2). “Interviewed by author”. The Hague.
Siddiquee, N. A., Xavier, J. A., & Mohamed, M. Z. (2019). What works and why? Lessons from public management reform in Malaysia. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(1), 14 27.https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2017.1390762
Singh, A. (2015). China’s ‘Maritime bases’ in the IOR: A chronicle of dominance foretold. Strategic Analysis, 39(3), 293–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2015.1022320
Snyder, G. H. (1991). Alliances, balance, and stability. International Organization, 45(1), 121-142. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300001417
Special officer to the Malaysian Defence Minister. (2020, February 21). Interviewed by author. Amsterdam.
Storey, I. (2012). China’s Bilateral Defense Diplomacy in Southeast Asia. Asian Security, 8(3), 287 310.https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2012.723928
Svara, J. H. (2006). Complexity in political-administrative relations and the limits of the dichotomy concept. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 28(1), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2006.11029526
Tang, S. M. (2016, March 21). Why Malaysia is adopting a tougher South China Sea Stance. https://www.malaymail.com/news/what-you-think/2016/03/21/why-malaysia-is-adopting-a toughersouth-china-sea-stance-tang-siew-mun/1083771
Transparency International. (2019). Corruption as statecraft: Using corrupt practices as Foreign Policy Tools. Transparency International Defense and Security.
US Department of Justice. (2016, July 20). United States seeks to recover more than $1 billion obtained from corruption involving Malaysian sovereign wealth fund. https://www.justice.gov/ opa/pr/united-states-seeks-recover-more-1-billion-obtained-corruption-involving-malaysiansoveeign
Wagner, C. (2016). The role of India and China in South Asia. Strategic Analysis, 40(4), 307-320. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2016.1184790
Waltz, K. (1979). The Theory of International Politics. 1979. McGraw Hill.
Wikileaks. (2009, June 23). Malay PM in China: Commemorating 35 Years of diplomatic ties with “big brother”. https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09BEIJING1708_a.html
Wright, T. (2019, January 8). Twitter post, 7:42 am. https://mobile.twitter.com/TomWrightAsia/ status/1082422267739463680
Wright, T., & Clark, S. (2015, July 2). Investigators believe money flowed to Malaysian Leader Najib’s accounts amid 1MDB probe. https://www.wsj.com/articles/malaysian-investigatorsprobe-points-to deposits-into-prime-ministers-accounts-1435866107
Wright, T., & Hope, B. (2018). Billion-dollar whale: The man who fooled wall street, hollywood, and the world. Hachette.
Wright, T., & Hope, B. (2019, January 7). WSJ investigation: China offered to bail out troubled Malaysian fund in return for deals. https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-china-flexes-its-political-muscleto expand-power-overseas-11546890449
Yukl, G., & Tracey, J. B. (1992). Consequences of influence tactics used with subordinates, peers, and the boss. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(4), 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021 9010.77.4.525
Zelikow, P., Edelman, E., Harrison, K., & Gventer, C. W. (2020, June 9). The rise of strategic corruption. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/rise-strategic-corruptionweaponize-graft.
Full Text:
PDFDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2024.2101.16
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
-
_________________________________________________
eISSN 1823-884x
Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan
MALAYSIA
© Copyright UKM Press, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia